SMA NEGERI 1 SUKARAJA: 2007

Friday, November 30, 2007

andragogy

The notion of andragogy has been around for nearly two centuries. It became particularly popular in North America and Britain as a way of describing adult learning through the work of Malcolm Knowles. But what actually does it mean, and how useful a term is it when thinking about adult learning?

The term andragogy was originally formulated by a German teacher, Alexander Kapp, in 1833 (Nottingham Andragogy Group 1983: v). He used it to describe elements of Plato's education theory. Andragogy (andr- meaning 'man') could be contrasted with pedagogy (paid- meaning 'child' and agogos meaning 'leading') (see Davenport 1993: 114). Kapp's use of andragogy had some currency but it was disputed, and fell into disuse. It reappeared in 1921 in a report by Rosenstock in which he argued that 'adult education required special teachers, methods and philosophy, and he used the term andragogy to refer collectively to these special requirements' (Nottingham Andragogy Group 1983: v). Eduard Lindeman was the first writer in English to pick up on Rosenstock's use of the term. The he only used it on two occasions. picture of Malcolm Knowles

As Stewart, his biographer, comments, 'the new term seems to have impressed itself upon no one, not even its originators'. That may have been the case in North America, but in France, Yugoslavia and Holland the term was being used extensively 'to refer to the discipline which studies the adult education process or the science of adult education' (Nottingham Andragogy Group 1983: v).

In the minds of many around the adult education field, andragogy and the name of Malcolm Knowles have become inextricably linked. For Knowles, andragogy is premised on at least four crucial assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners that are different from the assumptions about child learners on which traditional pedagogy is premised. A fifth was added later.

1. Self-concept: As a person matures his self concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being

2. Experience: As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning.

3. Readiness to learn. As a person matures his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles.

4. Orientation to learning. As a person matures his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of problem centredness.

5. Motivation to learn: As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (Knowles 1984:12).

Each of these assertions and the claims of difference between andragogy and pedagogy are the subject of considerable debate. Useful critiques of the notion can be found in Davenport (1993) Jarvis (1977a) Tennant (1996) (see below). Here I want to make some general comments about Knowles' approach.

Some general issues with Knowles' approach

First, as Merriam and Caffarella (1991: 249) have pointed out, Knowles' conception of andragogy is an attempt to build a comprehensive theory (or model) of adult learning that is anchored in the characteristics of adult learners. Cross (1981: 248) also uses such perceived characteristics in a more limited attempt to offer a 'framework for thinking about what and how adults learn'. Such approaches may be contrasted with those that focus on:

an adult's life situation (e.g. Knox 1986; Jarvis 1987a);

changes in consciousness (e.g. Mezirow 1983; 1990 or Freire 1972) (Merriam and Caffarella 1991).

Second, Knowles makes extensive use of a model of relationships derived from humanistic clinical psychology - and, in particular, the qualities of good facilitation argued for by Carl Rogers. However, Knowles adds in other elements which owe a great deal to scientific curriculum making and behaviour modification (and are thus somewhat at odds with Rogers). These encourage the learner to identify needs, set objectives, enter learning contracts and so on. In other words, he uses ideas from psychologists working in two quite different and opposing therapeutic traditions (the humanist and behavioural traditions). This means that there is a rather dodgy deficit model lurking around this model.

Third, it is not clear whether this is a theory or set of assumptions about learning, or a theory or model of teaching (Hartree 1984). We can see something of this in relation to the way he has defined andragogy as the art and science of helping adults learn as against pedagogy as the art and science of teaching children. There is an inconsistency here.

Hartree (1984) raises a further problem. Has Knowles provided us with a theory or a set of guidelines for practice? The assumptions 'can be read as descriptions of the adult learner... or as prescriptive statements about what the adult learner should be like' (Hartree 1984 quoted in Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 250). This links with the point made by Tennant - there seems to be a failure to set and interrogate these ideas within a coherent and consistent conceptual framework. As Jarvis (1987b) comments, throughout his writings there is a propensity to list characteristics of a phenomenon without interrogating the literature of the arena (e.g. as in the case of andragogy) or looking through the lens of a coherent conceptual system. Undoubtedly he had a number of important insights, but because they are not tempered by thorough analysis, they were a hostage to fortune - they could be taken up in an ahistorical or atheoretical way.

The assumptions explored

With these things in mind we can look at the assumptions that Knowles makes about adult learners:

1. Self-concept: As a person matures his self concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being. The point at which a person becomes an adult, according to Knowles, psychologically, 'is that point at which he perceives himself to be wholly self-directing. And at that point he also experiences a deep need to be perceived by others as being self-directing' (Knowles 1983: 56). As Brookfield (1986) points out, there is some confusion as to whether self-direction is meant here by Knowles to be an empirically verifiable indicator of adulthood. He does say explicitly that it is an assumption. However, there are some other immediate problems:

both Erikson and Piaget have argued that there are some elements of self-directedness in children's learning (Brookfield 1986: 93). Children are not dependent learners for much of the time, ‘quite the contrary, learning for them is an activity which is natural and spontaneous' (Tennant 1988: 21). It may be that Knowles was using ‘self-direction’ in a particular way here or needed to ask a further question - 'dependent or independent with respect to what?'

the concept is culturally bound - it arises out of a particular (humanist) discourse about the self which is largely North American in its expression. This was looked at last week - and will be returned to in future weeks.

2. Experience: As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning. The next step is the belief that adults learn more effectively through experiential techniques of education such as discussion or problem solving (Knowles 1980: 43). The immediate problem we have is the unqualified way in which the statement is made. There may be times when experiential learning is not appropriate - such as when substantial amounts of new information is required. We have to ask the question, what is being learnt, before we can make judgements.

A second aspect here is whether children's and young people's experiences are any less real or less rich than those of adults. They may not have the accumulation of so many years, but the experiences they have are no less consuming, and still have to be returned to, entertained, and made sense of. Does the fact that they have 'less' supposed experience make any significant difference to the process? A reading of Dewey (1933) and the literature on reflection (e.g. Boud et al 1985) would support the argument that age and amount of experience makes no educational difference. If this is correct, then the case for the distinctiveness of adult learning is seriously damaged. This is of fundamental significance if, as Brookfield (1986: 98) suggests, this second assumption of andragogy 'can arguably lay claim to be viewed as a "given" in the literature of adult learning'.

3. Readiness to learn. As a person matures his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles. As Tennant (1988: 21-22) puts it, 'it is difficult to see how this assumption has any implication at all for the process of learning, let alone how this process should be differentially applied to adults and children'. Children also have to perform social roles.

Knowles does, however, make some important points at this point about 'teachable' moments. The relevance of study or education becomes clear as it is needed to carry out a particular task. At this point more ground can be made as the subject seems relevant.

However, there are other problems. These appear when he goes on to discuss the implications of the assumption. 'Adult education programs, therefore, should be organised around 'life application' categories and sequenced according to learners readiness to learn' (1980: 44)

First, as Brookfield comments, these two assumptions can easily lead to a technological interpretation of learning that is highly reductionist. By this he means that things can become rather instrumental and move in the direction of competencies. Language like 'life application' categories reeks of skill-based models - where learning is reduced to a series of objectives and steps (a product orientation). We learn things that are useful rather than interesting or intriguing or because something fills us with awe. It also thoroughly underestimates just how much we learn for the pleasure it brings (see below).

Second, as Humphries (1988) has suggested, the way he treats social roles - as worker, as mother, as friend, and so on, takes as given the legitimacy of existing social relationships. In other words, there is a deep danger of reproducing oppressive forms.

4. Orientation to learning. As a person matures his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of problem centredness. This is not something that Knowles sees as 'natural' but rather it is conditioned (1984: 11). It follows from this that if young children were not conditioned to be subject-centred then they would be problem-centred in their approach to learning. This has been very much the concern of progressives such as Dewey. The question here does not relate to age or maturity but to what may make for effective teaching. We also need to note here the assumption that adults have a greater wish for immediacy of application. Tennant (1988: 22) suggests that a reverse argument can be made for adults being better able to tolerate the postponed application of knowledge.

Last, Brookfield argues that the focus on competence and on 'problem-centredness' in Assumptions 3 and 4 undervalues the large amount of learning undertaken by adults for its innate fascination. '[M]uch of adults' most joyful and personally meaningful learning is undertaken with no specific goal in mind. It is unrelated to life tasks and instead represents a means by which adults can define themselves' (Brookfield 1986: 99).

5. Motivation to learn: As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (Knowles 1984:12). Again, Knowles does not see this as something 'natural' but as conditioned - in particular, through schooling. This assumption sits awkwardly with the view that adults' readiness to learn is 'the result of the need to perform (externally imposed) social roles and that adults have a problem-centred (utilitarian) approach to learning' (Tennant 1988: 23).

In sum it could be said that these assumptions tend to focus on age and stage of development. As Ann Hanson (1996: 102) has argued, this has been at the expense of questions of purpose, or of the relationship between individual and society

Andragogy and pedagogy

As we compare Knowles' versions of pedagogy and andragogy what we can see is a mirroring of the difference between what is known as the romantic and the classical curriculum (although this is confused by the introduction of behaviourist elements such as the learning contract). As Jarvis (1985) puts it, perhaps even more significantly is that for Knowles 'education from above' is pedagogy, while 'education of equals' is andragogy. As a result, the contrasts drawn are rather crude and do not reflect debates within the literature of curriculum and pedagogy.

A comparison of the assumptions of pedagogy and andragogy following Knowles (Jarvis 1985: 51)

	Pedagogy	Andragogy
The learner	Dependent. Teacher directs what, when, how a subject is learned and tests that it has been learned	Moves towards independence. Self-directing. Teacher encourages and nurtures this movement
The learner's experience	Of little worth. Hence teaching methods are didactic	A rich resource for learning. Hence teaching methods include discussion, problem-solving etc.
Readiness to learn	People learn what society expects them to. So that the curriculum is standardized.	People learn what they need to know, so that learning programmes organised around life application.
Orientation to learning	Acquisition of subject matter. Curriculum organized by subjects.	Learning experiences should be based around experiences, since people are performance centred in their learning

We need to be extremely cautious about claiming that there is anything distinctive about andragogy. In his reference to romantic and classic notions of curriculum Jarvis (1985) brings out that what lies behind these formulations are competing conceptualizations of education itself. Crucially, these are not directly related to the age or social status of learners. There are various ways of categorizing strands of educational thinking and practice - and they are somewhat more complex than Knowles' setting of pedagogy against andragogy. In North American education debates, for example, four main forces can be identified in the twentieth century: the liberal educators; the scientific curriculum makers; the developmental/person-centred; and the social meliorists (those that sought more radical social change) (after Kliebart 1987). Another way of looking at these categories (although not totally accurate) is as those who see curriculum as:

the transmission of knowledge,
product
process, and
praxis.

Viewed in this way - Knowles' version of pedagogy looks more like transmission; and andragogy, as represented in the chart, like process. But as we have seen, he mixes in other elements - especially some rather mechanistic assumptions and ideas which can be identified with scientific curriculum making.

Andragogy - the continuing debate

By 1984 Knowles had altered his position on the distinction between pedagogy and andragogy. The child-adult dichotomy became less marked. He claimed, as above, that pedagogy was a content model and andragogy a process model but the same criticisms apply concerning his introduction of behaviourist elements. He even added the fifth assumption: As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (1984: 12). Yet while there have been these shifts, the tenor of his work, as Jarvis (1987b) argues, still seems to suggest that andragogy is related to adult learning and pedagogy to child learning.

There are those, like Davenport (1993) or the Nottingham Andragogy Group (1983) who believe it is possible to breathe life into the notion of andragogy - but they tend to founder on the same point. Kidd, in his study of how adults learn said the following:

[W]hat we describe as adult learning is not a different kind or order from child learning. Indeed our main point is that man must be seen as a whole, in his lifelong development. Principles of learning will apply, in ways that we shall suggest to all stages in life. The reason why we specify adults throughout is obvious. This is the field that has been neglected, not that of childhood. (Kidd 1978: 17)

If Kidd is correct then the search for andragogy is pointless. There is no basis in the characteristics of adult learners upon which to construct a comprehensive theory. Andragogy can be seen as an idea that gained popularity in at a particular moment - and its popularity probably says more about the ideological times (Jarvis 1995: 93) than it does about learning processes.

Other references

Boud, D. et al (1985) Reflection. Turning experience into learning, London: Kogan Page.

Brookfield, S. D. (1986) Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. A comprehensive analysis of principles and effective practice, Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

Cross, K. P. (1981) Adults as Learners. Increasing participation and facilitating learning (1992 edn.), San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think, New York: D. C. Heath.

Hanson, A. (1996) 'The search for separate theories of adult learning: does anyone really need andragogy?' in Edwards, R., Hanson, A., and Raggatt, P. (eds.) Boundaries of Adult Learning. Adult Learners, Education and Training Vol. 1, London: Routledge.

Humphries, B. (1988) 'Adult learning in social work education: towards liberation or domestication'. Critical Social Policy No. 23 pp.4-21.

Jarvis, P. (1985) The Sociology of Adult and Continuing Education, Beckenham: Croom Helm.

Kidd, J. R. (1978) How Adults Learn (3rd. edn.),Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice Hall Regents.

Kliebart, H. M. (1987) The Struggle for the American Curriculum 1893-1958, New York : Routledge.

Merriam, S. B. and Caffarella, R. S. (1991)Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

How to cite this article: Smith, M. K. (1996; 1999) 'Andragogy', the encyclopaedia of informal education, http://www.infed.org/lifelonglearning/b-andra.htm. Last update: November 27, 2007.

Andragogy + Pedagogy

Pedagogy (pèd-e-go´jê) literally means the art and science of educating children and often is used as a synonym for teaching. More accurately, pedagogy embodies teacher-focused education.

In the pedagogic model, teachers assume responsibility for making decisions about what will be learned, how it will be learned, and when it will be learned. Teachers direct learning.

The great teachers of ancient times, from Confucius to Plato, didn't pursue such authoritarian techniques. Major differences exist between what we know of the great teachers' styles, yet they all saw learning as a process of active inquiry, not passive reception. Considering this, it is surprising that teacher-focused learning later came to dominate formal education.

One explanation for the teacher-focused approach goes back to the Calvinists who believed wisdom was evil. They espoused that adults direct, control, and ultimately limit children's learning to keep them innocent.

Another theory maintains that seventh century schools, organized to prepare young boys for the priesthood, found indoctrination an effective approach to instill beliefs, faith, and ritual. Many centuries later, organized schools adopted a similar approach although the outcome was supposed to be neither innocence nor a cloistered life.

John Dewey believed formal schooling was falling short of its potential. Dewey emphasized learning through various activities rather than traditional teacher-focused curriculum. He believed children learned more from guided experience than authoritarian instruction. He ascribed to a learner-focused education philosophy. He held that learning is life not just preparation for life.

Adult education, too, fell victim to teacher-centered models. In 1926, the American Association for Adult Education began and quickly started researching better ways to educate adults. Influenced by Dewey, Eduard C. Lindeman wrote in The Meaning of Adult Education:

Our academic system has grown in reverse order. Subjects and teachers constitute the starting point, [learners] are secondary. In conventional education the [learner] is required to adjust himself to an established curriculum....Too much of learning consists of vicarious substitution of someone else's experience and knowledge. Psychology teaches us that we learn what we do....Experience is the adult learner's living textbook.

Unfortunately, only some of Dewey's and Lindeman's theories seeped into modern classrooms for children or adults. A century after Dewey proposed learner-focused education, most formal education still focuses on the teacher.

------------------
It is the supreme art of the teacher to awaken joy in creative expression and knowledge.

— Albert Einstein
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As a result, many learners leave school having lost interest in learning. Even good-intentioned educators can squelch naturally inquisitive instincts by controlling the learning environment. By adulthood, some people view learning as a chore and a burden.

In an attempt to formulate a comprehensive adult learning theory, Malcolm Knowles, in 1973, published the book The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Building on the earlier work of Lindeman, Knowles asserted that adults require certain conditions to learn. He borrowed the term andragogy (and-rè-go´jê) to define and explain the conditions.

Andragogy, initially defined as "the art and science of helping adults learn," has taken on a broader meaning since Knowles' first edition. The term currently defines an alternative to pedagogy and refers to learner-focused education for people of all ages.

The andragogic model asserts that five issues be considered and addressed in formal learning. They include (1) letting learners know why something is important to learn, (2) showing learners how to direct themselves through information, and (3) relating the topic to the learners' experiences. In addition, (4) people will not learn until they are ready and motivated to learn. Often this (5) requires helping them overcome inhibitions, behaviors, and beliefs about learning.

Unfortunately, andragogy usually is cited in education texts as the way adults learn. Knowles himself concedes that four of andragogy's five key assumptions apply equally to adults and children. The sole difference is that children have fewer experiences and pre-established beliefs than adults and thus have less to relate.

In the information age, the implications of a move from teacher-centered to learner-centered education are staggering. Postponing or suppressing this move will slow our ability to learn new technology and gain competitive advantage.

How can we expect to analyze and synthesize so much information if we turn to others to determine what should be learned, how it will be learned, and when it will be learned?

Though our grandchildren or great-grandchildren may be free of pedagogic bias, most adults today are not offered that luxury. To succeed, we must unlearn our teacher-reliance.

We must take it upon ourselves to meet our learning needs and demand training providers do the same. To know our demands, we must know how we process information.

Some of this text was originally published in a whitepaper Marcia wrote in 1995 for Wave Technologies entitled "Learning: The Critical Technology." You can download the entire whitepaper here in Adobe Acrobat format (280K).

Pedagogy from the Greek word paid, meaning "child," and agogus meaning "leader of."

Malcolm Knowles (1998). The adult learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.

John Dewey tested and proved his theories in the Laboratory School, established at the University of Chicago in 1896.

Eduard C. Lindeman (1926). The meaning of adult education. New York: New Republic. Redistributed edition 1989.

In The Adult Learner, Knowles stated that Andragogy is not a new word. It was used in Germany as early as 1833 and has been used extensively during the last decade in Yugoslavia, France and Holland. It is also worth noting that in 1927, Martha Anderson and Eduard Lindeman used the term in a volume titled Education Through Experience.

by Marcia L. Conner

7 Alasan kenapa Indonesia Gak Bisa maju

Jml penduduk Indonesia ada 237 juta. 104 juta diantaranya adalah para pensiun. Jadi tinggal 133 juta yang bisa kerja.
Jml pelajar dan mahasiswa adalah 85 juta. Mereka sekolah, jadi tinggal 48 juta orang yang bisa kerja.
Yang kerja buat pemerintah pusat sebagai pegawai negeri ada 29 juta. Jadi tinggal 19 juta yang bisa kerja.
Ada 4 juta yg jadi TNI/POLRI. Jadi tinggal 15 juta yg bisa kerja.
Ada lagi yang kerja di pemerintahan daerah dan departemen jumlah nya 14.800.000. jadi sisanya tinggal 200.000 yang bisa kerja.
Yang sakit dan dirawat di Rumah Sakit di seluruh Indonesia ada 188.000. Jadi sisa 12.000 orang yang bisa kerja.
Ada 11.988 orang yg dipenjara. Jadi tinggal sisa dua orang saja yang masih bisa kerja.

SIAPA MEREKA .....?
Yaa,... tentu saja SAYA dan ANDA.
Tapi kan... ANDA malah sibuk main internet...
Jadi tinggal SAYA SENDIRI YANG BEKERJA.!!!! !!
Bagaimana Indonesia bisa maju kalau cuma saya sendiri

Monday, September 24, 2007

Facilitation Techniques for Organizational Functions

Spur participation when it is lagging. For example, request direct comments and responses to the issues discussed (Eisley 1991).

Require regular participation. To maintain an active dialogue, it is necessary to exhort students to log on at least twice a week. One feasible mechanism to handle this is the weekly quiz (Hiltz 1988).

Use response activities. The response activity feature of the EIES conferencing system was developed to force active participation. Here, each student must post a response to a question before access to the other answers is granted (Hiltz 1988).

Move misplaced content. Immediately move contributions under a wrong discussion heading (Eisley 1991).

Handle tangents appropriately. Refer inappropriate digressions to another conference, or guide the students back to the original topic (Eisley 1991).

Vary participation. Ask the overly outspoken privately to wait a few responses before contributing. In the same way, ask less outspoken individuals to participate more actively, and call on specific individuals just as a teacher might call on a student in a traditional class (Eisley 1991).

Occasionally have a student conduct the discussion. Students could take turns as assistant moderators (Eisley 1991).

Give a decisive end to each discussion. Conclude discussions that drag on after they have served their purpose. Such discussions will distract from other topics on which students should focus (Eisley 1991).

Invite visiting experts. Guest experts may join the conference, and students may be asked to present questions to the visitor (Hiltz 1988).

Be patient. Be prepared to wait several days for comments and responses, and don't rush in to fill every silence with moderator contributions (Feenberg 1989b).

Don't overload. Post about one long comment a day. If the students have much to offer, the moderator should contribute less so that the slower participants can keep up (Feenberg 1989b).

Read the status report daily. Don't let too many of the participants fall far behind (Feenberg 1989b).

Don't lecture. Use open-ended remarks, examples, and weaving. An elaborate, logically coherent sequence of comments yields silence (Feenberg 1989b).

Prompt frequently. Use private messages to urge participants to take part in the discussion, to initiate debates, and to solicit suggestions (Feenberg 1989b).

Use simple assignments. Don't be apprehensive about presenting assignments to the group, but keep the threshold of participation low (Feenberg 1989b).

Be clear. Begin with an opening comment that succinctly states the conference topic and the moderator's initial expectations and continue to clarify the topic and the expectations as the conference proceeds (Feenberg 1989b).

Set up student interaction. Encourage participants to address each other as well as the moderator (Feenberg 1989b).

Synchronize and resynchronize. Make sure everyone begins concurrently and offer periodic occasions to restart in unison (Feenberg 1989b).

Remember the "law" of proportionality. Recall that faculty generally contribute about one quarter to one half the online material (Feenberg 1989b).

Take the procedural initiative. Avoid frustrating procedural discussions by providing groups with strong procedural leadership (Feenberg 1989b).

Facilitation Techniques for Social Functions

Reinforce good discussant behaviors. Say, for example, thank you to students who respond effectively online (Eisley 1991).

Request change in poor discussant behaviors. For example, tactfully point out that the class should be more directly responsive to each other's comments (Eisley 1991).

Hang loose. Don't present an elaborate seminar agenda at the outset, just follow the flow of the conversation while guiding it toward the subject (Feenberg 1989b).

Be responsive. Respond swiftly to every contribution either by posting a personal message to the contributor or by referring to the author's comment in the conference (Feenberg 1989b).

Request metacomments. Invite participants to express how they feel about the course within the conference (Feenberg 1989b).

Facilitation Techniques for Intellectual Functions

Summarize the discussion. If the discussion is an especially lengthy one, summarize occasionally (Eisley 1991).

Write weaving comments. Summarize the state of the conference every week or two as a means of focusing discussion (Feenberg 1989b).

Respond to student contributions and weave them together. It is not advisable to respond to each individual contribution; it is better to respond to several at once by weaving them together. Do refer to students by name (Hiltz 1988).

Make the material relevant. The course material could be made more relevant by developing questions and assignments that relate to student experiences and current events (Hiltz 1988).

Present conflicting opinions. Conflicting opinions could be exposed through instructors with different backgrounds, debates, and peer critique (Hiltz 1988).

Request responses. The instructor may ask individual students to comment on specific issues that are relevant to their specific backgrounds (Hiltz 1988).

Simulate an agent provocateur. By using a pen name, instructors can question or challenge their own entries. This device could be used to set up a discussion or to set an example for student inquiries (Hiltz 1988).

Be objective. Don't generalize about a conference without considering the contributions with regard to contents, author, and time of announcement (Feenberg 1989b).

Expect less. Be content if the moderator accomplishes to communicate two or three good major points in the course of a month of discussion (Feenberg 1989b).

Don't rely on off-line materials. The discussion must be largely self-contained to succeed, so summarize assigned readings online (Feenberg 1989b).

Facilitation of Assessment Functions

Assessment can be done in several ways. According to Thorpe (1987, 11) the Open University, UK used in-text questions (ITQs) for self-assessment, computer-marked assignments (CMAs), and tutor-marked assignments (TMAs). Here, peer assessment is included as a fourth category of assessment.

ITQs are developed for self-assessment. For example, they could include questions which ask the students to review, revise, or summarize what they have learned from the course material. As a guide to self-assessment, the course material could include suggested solutions and discussion of pitfalls.

CMAs are made for computer assessment. They are typically multiple-choice questions, and Thorpe (1987, 15) stated that over 90 percent of the CMA question sets at the Open University have been of the multiple-choice type. CMAs should be well suited for CMC since both technologies are based on computers.

TMAs are made for tutor assessment. These could take the form of an essay or a problem to solve. Thorpe (1987, 16) wrote that the TMAs were the most important elements of the continuous assessment part of all undergraduate courses at the Open University. Obviously, TMAs could be a major contribution to the teacher workload, and should therefore be carefully designed with this in mind.

Peer assessment is included as a fourth category of assessment in this study because CMC provides more opportunities for peer communication than the traditional distance education setting at the Open University as described by Thorpe (1987). Peer assessment can be both informal comments among students collaborating on an assignment and a more formal feedback on individual assignments.

Teaching Style

If you are a teacher and would like to assess your teaching style, you may use the Principles of Adult Learning Scale (PALS), developed by Conti (1991). High PALS scores indicate that you have a learner-centered style, and low scores indicate a teacher-centered style. The scales comprise seven factors that are of importance to your teaching style. The factors relate to the teachers' attitudes toward: learner-centered activities, personalizing instruction, relating to experience, assessing student needs, climate building, participation in the learning process, and flexibility for personal development.

Your teaching style is based on your philosophical orientation and your theories of education. In discussing adult education philosophies, Zinn (1991) distinguished between liberal, behaviorist, progressive, humanistic, and radical philosophies. These and other philosophies in adult education are presented in selected writings edited by Merriam (1984) and Jarvis (1987). An interesting online resource is The Theory Into Practice(http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/) database, shown in Figure 8, that contains descriptions of 50 theories relevant to human learning and instruction। With regard to distance education, Keegan (1988) identified three theoretical positions: theories of autonomy and independence, theories of industrialization, and theories of interaction and communication. Discussing these theoretical positions, Paulsen (1992b) presented a theory on cooperative freedom, which was a first attempt to establish a distance education theory attuned to CMC. In other words, teachers will perceive their functions in educational computer conferencing in light of their basic theories and philosophies toward education.

Teaching Methods and Techniques

In this study unit, we will discuss online teaching methods, devices, and techniques. You should start with the text in this introductory reading and then go on to read the Definitions of Pivotal Terms for Online Teaching. Finally you should read The Online Report on Pedagogical Techniques for Computer-Mediated Communication.

Teaching Methods

Verner (1964, 36) distinguished between individual and group methods of teaching. Applied to online education, you will encounter a more detailed classification of methods. Harasim (1989) distinguished between one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many learning approaches. Here, Harasim's classification is supplemented with the one-online learning approach to support the four communication paradigms often used in CMC. The paradigms are information retrieval, e-mail, bulletin boards, and computer conferencing. The classification is derived from Rapaport (1991) who used it in his book; Computer Mediated Communications: Bulletin Boards, Computer Conferencing, Electronic Mail, and Information Retrieval. According to the discussion above, we will here distinguish between the four methods: one-online, one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many.

Activity on Teaching Methods

Find the definitions of the four teaching methods that are discussed in this study unit. How would you describe the balance between them in this course?

Teaching Devices

Verner (1964, 37) referred to "various mechanical instruments, audiovisual aids, physical arrangements, and materials" as devices that can enhance the effectiveness of an adult education process. Verner also stated that television could be regarded as a device when used in a classroom and as a method when it is the primary medium used in a distance education setting. From this, one may argue that CMC could be regarded as both device and method. Here, CMC is viewed from the device perspective.

Let us use the CMC-classification derived from Rapaport (1991). There are four major CMC-devices: information retrieval systems, e-mail systems, bulletin board systems, and computer conferencing systems. These devices correspond to the four methods: one-online, one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many.

Activity on Teaching Devices

Which information retrieval systems, e-mail systems, bulletin board systems, and computer conferencing systems are utilized in this course?

Teaching Techniques

We use teaching techniques to accomplish teaching objectives. The techniques introduced here are organized according to the four communication paradigms used in CMC. The techniques are discussed in detail in The Online Report on Pedagogical Techniques for Computer-Mediated Communication (required unit readings).

The foregoing considerations result in a framework of four methods, four devices, and a number of techniques as shown in table 1. First, the techniques classified as one-online are characterized by information retrieval from online resources, and the fact that a student can perform the learning task without communication with the teacher or other students (e.g. search of online databases). Second, the techniques classified as one-to-one can be conducted via e-mail applications (e.g. e-mail based correspondence studies). Third, the techniques discussed as one-to-many will typically be conducted via the WWW, bulletin boards, or distribution lists for e-mail (e.g. publication of a lecture). Finally, the techniques presented as many-to-many can be organized within computer conferencing systems, bulletin board systems, or distribution lists for e-mail (e.g. debates).

Teaching Methods	Teaching Techniques	Teaching Devices
One-online	Online Databases Online Publications Online Software Applications Online Interest Groups Interviews	Information Retrieval Systems
One-to-one	Learning Contracts Apprenticeships Internships Correspondence Studies	E-mail Systems
One-to-many	Lectures Symposiums Skits	Bulletin Board Systems
Many-to-many	Debates Simulations or Games Role Plays Case Studies Discussions Transcript-based Assignments Brainstormings Delphi Techniques Nominal Group Techniques Forums Projects Student Presentations	Computer Conferencing Systems

Table 1. Teaching methods, devices, and techniques

Activity on Teaching Techniques

Describe in writing some WWW teaching techniques that you would recommend for this course.

(Cisaeer)

Wednesday, September 19, 2007

TEKNIK PENULISAN ILMIAH

A. PENDAHULUAN
Kualitas suatu pendidikan tidak hanya dilihat dari bagaimana prestasi akademik yang dapat dicapai oleh masing-masing siswa, namun juga sangat ditentukan oleh kualitas para pengelola baik secara langsung maupun tidak terlibat dalam proses pendidikan dimaksud. Kondisi ini memperkuat bahwa pendidikan sebagai suatu jalinan sistem tidak dapat mengabaikan satu komponen yang terkait di dalamnya atau mendudukan posisi satu komponen lebih penting daripada komponen lainnya. Peran Kepala Sekolah sebagai pemimpin suatu lembaga pendidikan merupakan peran strategik di dalam mengoptimal-kan tujuan-tujuan yang ada di sekolah. Kepala sekolah bersama guru dituntut untuk mewujudkan iklim organisasi yang kondusif dengan dinamika perubahan yang dilakukan secara terus-menerus sesuai perubahan yang terjadi.
Sebagai seorang pemimpin, baik kepala sekolah maupun guru diharapkan memiliki pengetahuan luas dan keterampilan tinggi yang didasari IPTEK dan IMTAQ. Kemampuan yang tinggi baik dari aspek pengetahuan maupun keterampilan tidak akan datang dengan sendirinya tanpa ada upaya dan keinginan yang kuat dari sumber daya manusianya. Setiap kegiatan yang dilakukan harus dipersiapkan secara matang dengan mempertimbangkan unsur-unsur rasionalitas, moralitas di samping unsur yang bersifat ilmiah.sehingga dapat mencerminkan suatu budaya hidup-kerja berkualitas. Budaya ini perlu dibangun di atas pondasi yang kokoh didasarkan atas kemampuan dan kemauan para pengelola untuk mengoptimalkan kesinergian dari jalinan sistem yang saling terkait.
Aktivitas di bidang penulisan ilmiah merupakan salah satu cerminan dari ke-mampuan para pengelola pendidikan untuk menuangkan suatu ide atau gagasan atau bahkan hasil kajian research yang dilakukannya. Aktivitas ini diarahkan guna mem-perbaiki dan mengembangkan situasi yang kondusif demi mewujudkan budaya kerja hidup berkualitas.. Karya tulis yang dihasilkan harus dapat dipertanggungjawabkan keaslian dan keilmiahannya sehingga berdampak pada eksistensi dari lembaga yang dipimpinnya.
Melalui pelatihan yang dilakukan oleh Kelompok Pengawas TK/SD Kecamatan Jatinegara, diupayakan untuk menjembatani persoalan penulisan ilmiah yang sering dihadapi para pengelola pendidikan khususnya Kepala Sekolah dan guru senior agar salah satu kriteria kualitas dapat terwujud melalui kemampuan ini.

B. PEMBAHASAN
1. Apa yang dimaksud Ilmiah?
Ilmiah dalam suatu tulisan yang dihasilkan berarti digunakan metode dan prinsip-prinsip science, yaitu sistematis dan eksak, atau menggunakan metode penelitian di mana suatu hipotesis yang dirumuskan setelah dikumpulkan data objektif secara sistematis, dites secara empiris. Science selalu empiris, yaitu didasarkan atas data yang diperoleh melalui observasi. Science bersifat sistematis dan mencoba melihat sejumlah observasi yang kompleks dalam hubungan yang logis. Science itu objektif, menjauhi aspek-aspek yang subyektif.
Karena itu, kegiatan ilmiah tidak mencampurkannya dengan nilai-nilai etis.
Science tidak bertanya apakah objek penelitian itu baik atau buruk.
Science atau ilmu pengetahuan sering dipandang sebagai akumulasi pengetahu-an yang sistematis. Science dapat dan harus memperluas pengetahuan. Akan tetapi haki-kat science yang utama adalah sebagai suatu metode pendekatan terhadap keseluruh-an dunia empiris, yakni dunia kenyataan yang dapat dikenal manusia melalui pe-ngalamannya.
Science tidak bertujuan untuk menemukan kebenaran mutlak. Bagi science, segala pengetahuan bersifat sementara atau tentatif yang dapat berubah bila ditemukan data baru misalnya jika ditemukannya dengan menggunakan alat-alat baru.. Science adalah suatu metode analisis dan mengemukakan penemuannya dengan hati-hati dalam bentuk “jika”, “maka”. Dengan science, teori memegang peranan yang penting. Teori merupakan hal yang pokok dan dasar bagi science.

2. Pengertian Tulisan Ilmiah
Tulisan ilmiah dapat didefinisikan sebagai suatu karya tulis hasil kegiatan ilmiah yang berupa artikel/hasil penelitian atau berupa makalah yang disajikan pada forum pertemuan ilmiah. Tulisan ilmiah yang tersaji dengan bahasa dan format yang lebih populer disebut sebagai tulisan ilmiah populer.
Tulisan ilmiah memiliki beberapa ciri khusus, yaitu:
a. Isi sajiannya berada pada kawasan ilmu
b. Penulisannya cermat, tepat, dan benar
c. Sistematika jelas, dan
d. Bersifat objektif (dengan fakta dan rasional)
Setiap tulisan ilmiah hanya menyajikan ringkasan atau hal-hal yang menarik dari suatu kegiatan ilmiah (penelitian, pengembangan, dan evaluasi). Tulisan ilmiah sering juga disebut makalah. Makalah dapat menjadi artikel bila termuat di majalah ilmiah, atau bahan tulisan bagi siaran radio/TV, atau bahan tertulis dalam pertemuan ilmiah.
Penelitian merupakan suatu kegiatan pengkajian terhadap suatu permasalahan dengan menggunakan metode ilmiah. Hasilnya berupa pengetahuan ilmiah dari hal yang dipermasalahkan. Pengembangan merupakan kegiatan yang dapat berupa perancangan, perencanaan atau rekayasa yang dilakukan dengan berdasar metode berpikir ilmiah. Hasilnya berupa pengetahuan ilmiah atau teknologi yang digunakan untuk memecahkan masalah tersebut. Sedangkan evaluasi merupakan suatu kegiatan yang bertujuan untuk mendapatkan informasi yang diperoleh melalui tata cara tertentu berdasar pada metode berpikir ilmiah. Hasilnya adalah pengetahuan ilmiah yang digunakan untuk pengambilan kebijakan terhadap hal yang dipermasalahkan. Dengan demikian, kegiatan penelitian, pengembangan, dan evaluasi merupakan kegiatan ilmiah yang akan ditulis dalam bentuk dan format penulisan ilmiah mulai dari buku, artikel, dan gagasan yang ditulis melalui media massa.

Kriteria kebenaran ilmu ada tiga, yaitu:

a. Koherensi
Suatu pernyataan dianggap benar, bila pernyataan itu bersifat koherensi dan konsisten dengan pernyataan sebelumnya. Dan dianggap benar menurut logika deduktif dengan menggunakan sarana matematika sebagai alat pembuktiannya.
b. Korespondensi
Suatu pernyataan dianggap benar, jika pengetahuan yang terkandung dalam pernyataan itu berkorespondensi (berhubungan ) dengan objek yang dituju oleh pernyataan tersebut menurut logika induktif dan menggunakan statistik sebagai sasarannya.
c. Pragmatis
Pernyataan dianggap benar, bila diukur dengan kriteria apakah pernyataan itu bersifat fungsional (berguna/efektif) bagi kehidupan praktis. Atau suatu pernyataan itu mempunyai kegunaan praktis dalam kehidupan manusia.
Dalam cara berpikir/menalar untuk memecahkan suatu permasalahan, terdapat dua cara yaitu:
a. Berpikir deduktif (dari fakta umum ke khusus)
b. Berpikir induktif (dari fakta yang khusus kemudian diteliti dan akhirnya ditemui pemecahan persoalan yang bersifat umum). Ruang lingkup awalnya adalah khas dan terbatas.

3. Kerangka Isi Tulisan Ilmiah
Kerja penelitian, pengembangan dan evaluasi memerlukan pelaporan hasil. Kerangka isi dan format laporan hasil umumnya terdiri dari:
a. Bagian Pendahuluan terdiri dari halaman judul, lembaran persetujuan, kata pengantar, daftar isi, daftar tabel, daftar gambar dan lampiran, serta abstrak atau ringkasan.
b. Bagian Isi umumnya terdiri dari:
I. Permasalahan atau Pendahuluan
II. Kajian Teori atau Pembahasan Kepustakaan
III. Metodologi atau Uraian Metode dan Prosedur Pengkajian
IV. Hasil-hasil dan Diskusi Hasil Kajian, serta
V. Kesimpulan dan Saran-saran.
c. Bagian Penunjang umumnya terdiri dari sajian daftar pustaka dan lampiran-lampiran yang diperlukan untuk menunjang isi laporan
Bentuk sajian tulisan ilmiah dapat berbeda-beda. Majalah ilmiah dan pertemuan ilmiah mempersyaratkan bentuk sajian tulisan yang lebih resmi. Sedangkan media masa seperti koran dan naskah berita, tulisan ilmiahnya menggunakan bahasa yang lebih populer.
Isi tulisan laporan hasil kegiatan penelitian, pengembangan dan evaluasi yang dipersyaratkan oleh suatu jurnal ilmiah adalah:
a. Bagian Pendahuluan terdiri dari judul, abstrak dalam bahasa Indonesia dan Inggris
b. Bagian Isi terdiri dari Permasalahan, Uraian teori dan hal yang dipermasalahkan, Uraian fakta dari hal yang dipermasalahkan, Diskusi, Kesimpulan/Saran
c. Bagian Penunjang tediri dari daftar pustaka dan data dari penulis.

4. Pengertian Tulisan Ilmiah Populer
Pengetahuan ilmiah dapat disajikan dengan tampilan format dan bahasa yang lebih enak dibaca dan dipahami. Tulisan semacam itu umum disebut sebagai tulisan ilmiah populer.
Meskipun disajikan dengan gaya bahasa dan sajian yang tidak terlalu formal, namun fakta yang disajikan harus tetap obyektif dan dijiwai dengan kebenaran dan metode berpikir keilmuan. Pada umumnya tulisan ilmiah populer lebih banyak menyajikan pandangan, gagasan, komentar atau ulasan terhadap sesuatu permasalahan tertentu.

5. Kerangka Isi Tulisan Ilmiah Populer
Tulisan ilmiah populer umumnya tersaji dalam kerangka isi yang lebih bebas. Tidak ada kerangka isi yang baku seperti hasilpenelitian. Tujuannya adalah menarik bagi para pembaca dan mudah dipahami. Dengan demikian, dalam tulisan ilmiah populer harus jelas untuk konsumsi siap tulisan itu dibuat. Kondisi pembaca sangat menentukan gaya bahasa dan kerangka isi penyajian.
Kerangka isi tulisan ilmiah populer terdiri dari 3 bagian, yaitu pendahuluan, isi, dan penutup. Pada pendahuluan sering dipaparkan hal-hal yang menarik, atau mengejutkan. Pada bagian isi bahasan ada yangdimulai dengan memaparkan hal-hal umum untuk kemudian menuju pada kesimpulan yang spesifik. Atau sebaliknya. Ada juga yang mengungkapkan tesis, kemudian membenturkannya dengan antitesis untuk sampai pada satu sintesa. Ada pula yang membahas permasalahan dengan upaya untuk menjawab pertanyaan apa, siapa, mengapa, kapan, dan dimana serta bagaimana.

C. PENUTUP
Hasil kegiatan ilmiah dapat disajikan dalam bentuk tulisan ilmiah baik berupa artikel di majalah atau berupa makalah yang disajikan pada forum pertemuan ilmiah. Tulisan ilmiah yang tersaji dengan format yang lebih “populer” disebut sebagai tulisan ilmiah populer. Tulisan ilmiah populer merupakan tulisan ilmiah yang disajikan dengan menggunakan bahasa dan kerangka sajian isi yang lebih menarik serta mudah dipahami.
Berbagai cara penulisan dapat dilakukan untuk memaparkan hasil suatu kegiatan baik yang berupa penelitian, pengembangan maupun evaluasi. Teknik penulisannya dapat dilakukan dengan mengkaji siapa dan bagaimana pihak lain dapat memahami maksud dari tulisan yang disajikan. Tulisan ilmiah yang disajikan pada jurnal ilmiah memper-syaratkan kerangka isi sajian tertentu. Sedangkan tulisan ilmiah yang diterbitkan pada suatu jurnal ilmiah mengikuti langkah-langkah: Judul, Abstrak, Kata-kata kunci, Permasalahan, Uraian teori dari hal yang dipermasalahkan, Uraian fakta dari hal yang dipermasalahkan, Diskusi, Kesimpulan/Saran, Daftar Pustaka dan sajian ringkas data dari penulis.

TEKNIK PENULISAN ILMIAH

Teori Belajar Orang dewasa

Gagne membagi teori belajar dalam 3 famili :
a. conditioning
b. modelling
c. kognitif

Kingsley dan Garry membagi teori belajar dalam 2 bagian yaitu ;
a. teori stimulus-respon
b. teori medan
Taba membagi teori belajar menjadi 2 famili :
a. teori asosiasi atau behaviorisme
b. teori organismik, gestalt dan teori medan

Di dalam pembahasan akan difokuskan pada teori belajar orang dewasa. Ada aliran inkuiri yang merupakan landasan teori belajar dan mengajar orang dewasa yaitu : “scientific stream” dan “artistic atau intuitive/reflective stream”. Aliran “scientific stream” adalah menggali atau menemukan teori baru tentang belajar orang dewasa melalui penelitian dan eksperimen . Teori ini diperkenalkan oleh Edward L. Thorndike dengan pubilkasinya “ Adult Learning”, pada tahun 1928.
Pada aliran artistic, teori baru ditemukan melalui instuisi dan analisis pengalaman yang memberikan perhatian tentang bagaimana orang dewasa belajar. Aliran ini diperkenalkan oleh Edward C. Lindeman dalam penerbitannya “ The Meaning of Adult Education” pada tahun 1926 yang sangat dipengaruhi oleh filsafat pendidikan John Dewey.
Menurutnya sumber yang paling berguna dalam pendidikan orang dewasa adalah pengalaman peserta didik. Dari hasil penelitian, Linderman mengidentifikasi beberapa asumsi tentang pembelajar orang dewasa yang dijadikan fondasi teori belajar orang dewasa yaitu sebagai berikut :
1) pembelajar orang dewasa akan termotivasi untuk belajar karena kebutuhan dan minat dimana belajar akan memberikan kepuasan
2) orientasi pembelajar orang dewasa adalah berpusat pada kehidupan, sehingga unit-unit pembelajar sebaiknya adalah kehidupan nyata (penerapan) bukan subject matter.
3) Pengalaman adalah sumber terkaya bagi pembelajar orang dewasa, sehingga metode pembelajaran adalah analisa pengalaman (experiential learning).
4) Pembelajaran orang dewasa mempunyai kebutuhan yang mendalam untuk mengarahkan diri sendiri (self directed learning), sehingga peran guru sebagai instruktur.
5) Perbedaan diantara pembelajar orang dewasa semakin meningkat dengan bertambahnya usia, oleh karena itu pendidikan orang dewasa harus memberi pilihan dalam hal perbedaan gaya belajar, waktu, tempat dan kecepatan belajar.

Carl R Rogers (1951) mengajukan konsep pembelajaran yaitu “ Student-Centered Learning” yang intinya yaitu :
1) kita tidak bisa mengajar orang lain tetapi kita hanya bisa menfasilitasi belajarnya.
2) Seseorang akan belajar secarasignifikan hanya pada hal-hal yang dapat memperkuat/menumbuhkan “self”nya
3) Manusia tidak bisa belajar kalau berada dibawah tekanan
4) Pendidikan akan membelajarkan peserta didik secara signifkan bila tidak ada tekanan terhadap peserta didik, dan adanya perbedaan persepsi/pendapat difasilitasi/diakomodir

Peserta didik orang dewasa menurut konsep pendidikan adalah :
1) meraka yang berperilaku sebagai orang dewasa, yaitu orang yang melaksanakan peran sebagai orang dewasa
2) meraka yang mempunyai konsep diri sebagai orang dewasa

Andragogi mulai digunakan di Netherlands oleh professor T.T Ten have pada tahun 1954 dan pada tahun 1959 ia menerbitkan garis-garis besar “Science of Andragogy”
Model andragogi mempunyai konsep bahwa : kebutuhan untuk tahu (The need to know), konsep diri pembelajar ( the learner’s concept),peran pengalaman pembelajar (the role of the leaner’s experience), kesiapan belajar ( readiness to learn), orientasi belajar (orientation of learning) dan motivasi lebih banyak ditentukan dari dalam diri si pembelajar itu sendiri.
Didalam pembelajaran orang dewasa tidak sepenuhnya harus menggunakan model andragogi, tetapi bisa digabung model pedagogi. Jika pembelajarnya belum mengetahui atau sangat asing dengan materi yang disampaikan tentunya kita bisa menggunakan model pedagogi pada awal-awal pertemuan untuk mengkonstruksi pengalaman dengan pengetahuan yang baru didapatkan, selanjutnya bisa digunakan model andragogi sebagai penguatan dan pengembangan.

Teori Belajar Orang dewasa

Teori Belajar

Beberapa teori belajar yang akan di bahas antara lain :
Teori belajar Skinner “Operant Conditioning”
Teori Belajar Conditining of Learning, Robert M. Gagne
Teori Belajar Perkekmembangan Kognitif Jean Piaget
Teori Belajar Sosial Albert Bandura
Teori Belajar Orang Dewasa
Teori Pembelajaran Orang Dewasa

a) Teori Operant Conditioning
Teori operant conditioning dimulai pada tahun 1930-an. Burhus Fredik Skinner selama periode teori stimulus (S)- Respons ( R) untuk menyempurnakan teorinya Ivan Pavlo yang disebut “Classical Conditioning”. Skinner setuju dengan konsepnya John Watson bahwa psikologi akan diterima sebagai sain (science) bila studi tingkah laku (behavior) tersebut dapat diukur, seperti ilmu fisika, teknik, dan sebagainya.
Menurut Skinner , belajar adalah proses perubahan tingkah laku yang harus dapat diukur. Bila pembelajar (peserta didik) berhasil belajar, maka respon bertambah, tetapi bila tidak belajar banyaknya respon berkurang, sehingga secara formal hasil belajar harus bisa diamati dan diukur.
Hasil temuan skinner terdapat tiga komponen dalam belajar yaitu :
Discriminative stimulus (SD)
Response
Reinforcement (penguatan)
- penguatan positif
- penguatan negative
b) Teori Conditioning Of Learning, Robert M. Gagne
Teori ini ditemukan oleh Gagne yang didasarkan atas hasil riset tentang faktor-faktor yang kompleks pada proses belajar manusia. Penelitiannya diamksudkan untuk menemukan teori pembelajaran yang efektif. Analisanya dimulai dari identifikasi konsep hirarki belajar, yaitu urut-urutan kemampuan yang harus dikuasai oleh pembelajar (peserta didik) agar dapat mempelajari hal-hal yang lebih sulit atau lebih kompleks.
Menurut Gagne belajar memberi kontribusi terhadap adaptasi yang diperlukan untuk mengembangkan proses yang logis, sehingga perkembangan tingkah laku (behavior) adalah hasil dari efek belajar yang komulatif (gagne, 1968). Lebih lanjut ia menjelaskan bahwa belajar itu bukan proses tunggal. Belajar menurut Gagne tidak dapat didefinisikan dengan mudah, karena belajar bersifat kompleks.
Gagne (1972) mendefinisikan belajar adalah : mekanisme dimana seseorang menjadi anggota masyarakat yang berfungsi secara kompleks. Kompetensi itu meliputi, skill, pengetahuan, attitude (perilaku), dan nilai-nilai yang diperlukan oleh manusia, sehingga belajar adalah hasil dalam berbagai macam tingkah laku yang selanjutnya disebut kapasitas atau outcome. Kemampuan-kemampuan tersebut diperoleh pembelajar (peserta didik) dari :
1. Stimulus dan lingkungan
2. proses kognitif
Menurut Gagne belajar dapat dikategorikan sebagai berikut :
1) Verbal information (informasi verbal)
2) Intellectual Skill (skil Intelektual)
3) Attitude (perilaku)
4) Cognitive strategi (strategi kognitif)

Belajar informasi verbal merupakan kemampuan yang dinyatakan , seperti membuat label, menyusun fakta-fakta, dan menjelaskan. Kemampuan / unjuk kerja dari hasil belajar, seperti membuat pernyataan, penyusunan frase, atau melaporkan informasi.
Kemampuan skil intelektual adalah kemampuan pembelajar yang dapat menunjukkan kompetensinya sebagai anggota masyarakat seperti; menganalisa berita-berita. Membuat keseimbangan keuangan, menggunakan bahasa untuk mengungkapkan konsep, menggunakan rumus-rumus matematika. Dengan kata lain ia tahu “ Knowing how”
Attitude (perilaku) merupakan kemampuan yang mempengaruhi pilihan pembelajar (peserta didik) untuk melakukan suatu tindakan. Belajar mealui model ini diperoleh melalui pemodelan atau orang yang ditokohkan, atau orang yang diidolakan.
Strategi kognitif adalah kemampuan yang mengontrol manajemen belajar si pembelajar mengingat dan berpikir. Cara yang terbaik untuk mengembangkan kemampuan tersebut adalah dengan melatih pembelajar memecahkan masalah, penelitian dan menerapkan teori-teori untuk memecahkan masalah ril dilapangan. Melalui pendidikan formal diharapkan pembelajar menjadi “self learner” dan “independent tinker”.

c) Teori Perkembangan Kognitif Jean Piaget (Cognitive Development Theory)
Menurut Piaget pengetahuan (knowledge) adalah interksi yangterus menerus antara individu dengan lingkungan.
Fokus perkembangan kognitif Piaget adalah perkembangan secara alami fikiran pembelajar mulai anak-anak sampai dewasa. Konsepsi perkembangan kognitif Piaget, duturunkan dari analisa perkembangan biologi organisme tertentu. Menurut Piaget, intelegen (IQ=kecerdasan) adalah seperti system kehidupan lainnya, yaitu proses adaptasi.
Menurut Piaget ada tiga perbedaan cara berfikir yang merupakan prasyarat perkekmbangan operasi formal, yaitu; gerakan bayi, semilogika, praoprasional pikiran anak-anak, dan operasi nyata anak-anak dewas.
Ada empat faktor yang mempengaruhi perkembangan kognitif yaitu :
1) lingkungan fisik
2) kematangan
3) pengaruh sosial
4) proses pengendalian diri (equilibration)
(Piaget, 1977)

Tahap perkembangan kognitif :
1) Periode Sensori motor (sejak lahir – 1,5 – 2 tahun)
2) Periode Pra Operasional (2-3 tahun sampai 7-8 tahun)
3) Periode operasi yang nyata (7-8 tahun sampai 12-14 tahun)
4) Periode operasi formal
Kunci dari keberhasilan pembelajaran adalah instruktur/guru/dosen/guru harus memfasilitasi agar pembelajar dapat mengembangkan berpikir logis.

d) Teori Berpikir Sosial (social Learning Theory)
Teori ini dikembangkan oleh Albert Bandura seorang psikolog pendidikan dari Stanford University, USA. Teori belajar ini dikembangkan untuk menjelaskan bagaimana orang belajar dalam seting yang alami/lingkungan sebenarnya.
Bandura (1977) menghipotesiskan bahwa baik tingkah laku (B), lingkungan (E) dan kejadian-kejadian internal pada pembelajar yang mempengaruhi persepsi dan aksi (P) adalah merupakan hubungan yang saling berpengaruh (interlocking),
Harapan dan nilai mempengaruhi tingkah laku
Tingkah laku sering dievaluasi, bebas dari umpan balik lingkungan sehingga mengubah kesan-kesan personal
Tingkah laku mengaktifkan kontingensi lingkungan
Karakteristik fisik seperti ukuran, ukuran jenis kelamin dan atribut sosial menumbuhkan reaksi lingkungan yang berbeda.
Pengakuan sosial yang berbeda mempengaruhi konsepsi diri individu.
Kontingensi yang aktif dapat merubah intensitas atau arah aktivitas.
P
B
E

Tingkah laku dihadirkan oleh model
Model diperhatikan oleh pelajar (ada penguatan oleh model)
Tingkah laku (kemampuan dikode dan disimpan oleh pembelajar)
Pemrosesan kode-kode simbolik
Skema hubungan segitiga antara lingkungan, faktor-faktor personal dan tingkah laku, (Bandura, 1976).

Skema
Proses Kognitif Pembelajar
Pembelajar mampu menunjukkan kompetensi/tingkah laku
Performance/unjuk kerja
Motivasi pembelajar mengolah tingkah laku

Proses perhatian sangat penting dalam pembelajaran karena tingkah laku yang baru (kompetensi) tidak akan diperoleh tanpa adanya perhatian pembelajar. Proses retensi sangat penting agar pengkodean simbolik tingkah laku ke dalam visual atau kode verbal dan penyimpanan dalam memori dapat berjalan dengan baik. Dalam hal ini rehearsal (ulangan ) memegang peranan penting.
Proses motivasi yang penting adalah penguatan dari luar, penguatan dari dirinya sendiri dan Vicarius Reinforcement (penguatan karena imajinasi).
Lebih lanjut menurut Bandura (1982) penguasaan skill dan pengetahuan yang kompleks tidak hanya bergantung pada proses perhatian, retensi, motor reproduksi dan motivasi, tetapi juga sangat dipengaruhi oleh unsur-unsur yang berasal dari diri pembelajar sendiri yakni “sense of self Efficacy” dan “self – regulatory system”. Sense of self efficacy adalah keyakinan pembelajar bahwa ia dapat menguasai pengetahuan dan keterampilan sesuai standar yang berlaku.
Self regulatory adalah menunjuk kepada 1) struktur kognitif yang memberi referensi tingkah laku dan hasil belajar, 2) sub proses kognitif yang merasakan, mengevaluasi, dan pengatur tingkah laku kita (Bandura, 1978). Dalam pembelajaran sel-regulatory akan menentukan “goal setting” dan “self evaluation” pembelajar dan merupakan dorongan untuk meraih prestasi belajar yang tinggi dan sebaliknya.
Menurut Bandura agar pembelajar sukses instruktur/guru/dosen/guru harus dapat menghadirkan model yang mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat terhadap pembelajar, mengembangkan “self of mastery”, self efficacy, dan reinforcement bagi pembelajar.
Berikut Bandura mengajukan usulan untuk mengembangkan strategi proses pembelajaran yaitu sebagi berikut :

No
Strategi Proses
1
Analisis tingkah laku yang akan dijadikan model yang terdiri :
a. Apakah karekter dari tingkah laku yang akan dijadikan model itu berupa konsep, motor skil atau efektif?
b. Bagaimanakah urutan atau sekuen dari tingkah laku tersebut?
c. Dimanakah letak hal-hal yang penting (key point) dalam sekuen tersebut?
2
Tetapkan fungsi nilai dari tingkah laku dan pilihlah tingkah laku tersebut sebagai model.
a. Apakah tingkah laku (kemampuan yang dipelajari) merupakan hal yang penting dalam kehidupan dimasa datang? (success prediction)
b. Bila tingkah laku yang dipelajari kurang memberi manfaat (tidk begitu penting) model manakah yang lebih penting?
c. Apakah model harus hidup atau simbol?
Pertimbangan soal biaya, pengulangan demonstrasi dan kesempatan untuk menunjukkan fungsi nilai dan tingkah laku.
d. Apakah reinforcement yang akan didapat melalui model yang dipilih?

3
Pengembangan sekuen instruksional
a. Untuk mengajar motor skill, bagaimana caramengerjakan pekerjaan/kemampuan yang dipelajari :how to do this” dan bukannya “not this”.
Langkah-langkah manakah menurut sekuen yang harus dipresentasikan secara perlahan-lahan
4
Implementasi pengajaran untuk menunut proses kognitif dan motor reproduksi.
a. motor skill
1) hadirkan model
2) beri kesempatan kepada tiap-tiap pembelajar untuk latihan secarasimbolik
3) beri kesempatan kepada pembelajar untuk latihan dengan umpan balik visual
b. proses kognitif
1) Tampilkan model, baik yang didukung oleh kode-kode verbal atau petunjuk untuk mencari konsistensi pada berbagai contoh
2) Beri kesempatan kepada pembelajar untuk membuat ihtisar atau summary
3) Jika yang dipelajari adalah pemecahan masalah atau strategi penerapan beri kesempatan pembelajar untuk berpartisipasi secaraaktif
4) Beri kesempatan pembelajar untuk membuat generalisasi ke berbagai siatuasi.

Dari uraian tentang teori belajar sosial, dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut :
1. Belajar merupakan interaksi segitiga yang saling berpengaruh dan mengikat antara lingkungan, faktor-faktor personal dan tingkah laku yang meliputi proses-proses kognitif belajar.
2. komponen-komponen belajar terdiri dari tingkah laku, konsekuensi-konsekuensi terhadap model dan proses-proses kognitif pembelajar.
3. hasil belajar berupa kode-kode visual dan verbal yang mungkin dapat dimunculkan kembali atau tidak (retrievel).
4. dalam perencanaan pembelajaran skill yang kompleks, disamping pembelajaran-pembelajaran komponen-komponen skill itu sendiri, perlu ditumbuhkan “sense of efficacy” dan self regulatory” pembelajar.
5. dalam proses pembelajaran, pembelajar sebaiknya diberi kesempatan yang cukup untuk latihan secara mental sebelum latihan fisik, dan “reinforcement” dan hindari punishment yang tidak perlu.

Ahli lain yaitu Bloom dkk, menjelaskan domain tujuan pendidikan ada tiga ranah yaitu : 1) kognitif, yang berhubungan dengan ingatan, pengetahuan, dan perkembangan kemampuan dan skill intelektual, 2) afektif yang menjelaskan tentang perubahan dalam minat, perilaku (attitudes), nilai-nilai dan perkembangan dalam apresiasi dan penyesuaian , dan 3) psikomotor.

2. Teori Belajar Orang dewasa
Gagne membagi teori belajar dalam 3 famili :
a. conditioning
b. modelling
c. kognitif

Kingsley dan Garry membagi teori belajar dalam 2 bagian yaitu ;
a. teori stimulus-respon
b. teori medan
Taba membagi teori belajar menjadi 2 famili :
a. teori asosiasi atau behaviorisme
b. teori organismik, gestalt dan teori medan

Di dalam pembahasan akan difokuskan pada teori belajar orang dewasa. Ada aliran inkuiri yang merupakan landasan teori belajar dan mengajar orang dewasa yaitu : “scientific stream” dan “artistic atau intuitive/reflective stream”. Aliran “scientific stream” adalah menggali atau menemukan teori baru tentang belajar orang dewasa melalui penelitian dan eksperimen . Teori ini diperkenalkan oleh Edward L. Thorndike dengan pubilkasinya “ Adult Learning”, pada tahun 1928.
Pada aliran artistic, teori baru ditemukan melalui instuisi dan analisis pengalaman yang memberikan perhatian tentang bagaimana orang dewasa belajar. Aliran ini diperkenalkan oleh Edward C. Lindeman dalam penerbitannya “ The Meaning of Adult Education” pada tahun 1926 yang sangat dipengaruhi oleh filsafat pendidikan John Dewey.
Menurutnya sumber yang paling berguna dalam pendidikan orang dewasa adalah pengalaman peserta didik. Dari hasil penelitian, Linderman mengidentifikasi beberapa asumsi tentang pembelajar orang dewasa yang dijadikan fondasi teori belajar orang dewasa yaitu sebagai berikut :
1) pembelajar orang dewasa akan termotivasi untuk belajar karena kebutuhan dan minat dimana belajar akan memberikan kepuasan
2) orientasi pembelajar orang dewasa adalah berpusat pada kehidupan, sehingga unit-unit pembelajar sebaiknya adalah kehidupan nyata (penerapan) bukan subject matter.
3) Pengalaman adalah sumber terkaya bagi pembelajar orang dewasa, sehingga metode pembelajaran adalah analisa pengalaman (experiential learning).
4) Pembelajaran orang dewasa mempunyai kebutuhan yang mendalam untuk mengarahkan diri sendiri (self directed learning), sehingga peran guru sebagai instruktur.
5) Perbedaan diantara pembelajar orang dewasa semakin meningkat dengan bertambahnya usia, oleh karena itu pendidikan orang dewasa harus memberi pilihan dalam hal perbedaan gaya belajar, waktu, tempat dan kecepatan belajar.

Carl R Rogers (1951) mengajukan konsep pembelajaran yaitu “ Student-Centered Learning” yang intinya yaitu :
1) kita tidak bisa mengajar orang lain tetapi kita hanya bisa menfasilitasi belajarnya.
2) Seseorang akan belajar secarasignifikan hanya pada hal-hal yang dapat memperkuat/menumbuhkan “self”nya
3) Manusia tidak bisa belajar kalau berada dibawah tekanan
4) Pendidikan akan membelajarkan peserta didik secara signifkan bila tidak ada tekanan terhadap peserta didik, dan adanya perbedaan persepsi/pendapat difasilitasi/diakomodir

Peserta didik orang dewasa menurut konsep pendidikan adalah :
1) meraka yang berperilaku sebagai orang dewasa, yaitu orang yang melaksanakan peran sebagai orang dewasa
2) meraka yang mempunyai konsep diri sebagai orang dewasa

Andragogi mulai digunakan di Netherlands oleh professor T.T Ten have pada tahun 1954 dan pada tahun 1959 ia menerbitkan garis-garis besar “Science of Andragogy”
Model andragogi mempunyai konsep bahwa : kebutuhan untuk tahu (The need to know), konsep diri pembelajar ( the learner’s concept),peran pengalaman pembelajar (the role of the leaner’s experience), kesiapan belajar ( readiness to learn), orientasi belajar (orientation of learning) dan motivasi lebih banyak ditentukan dari dalam diri si pembelajar itu sendiri.
Didalam pembelajaran orang dewasa tidak sepenuhnya harus menggunakan model andragogi, tetapi bisa digabung model pedagogi. Jika pembelajarnya belum mengetahui atau sangat asing dengan materi yang disampaikan tentunya kita bisa menggunakan model pedagogi pada awal-awal pertemuan untuk mengkonstruksi pengalaman dengan pengetahuan yang baru didapatkan, selanjutnya bisa digunakan model andragogi sebagai penguatan dan pengembangan.